1. Field of the Invention
The invention is in the field of biotechnology. Specifically, the invention is directed to entrapped mutated binding proteins, mutated binding proteins containing reporter groups, compositions of mutated binding proteins containing reporter groups in analyte permeable matrixes, and their use as analyte biosensors both in vitro and in vivo.
2. Description of Relevant Art
Monitoring glucose concentrations to facilitate adequate metabolic control in diabetics is a desirable goal and would enhance the lives of many individuals. Currently, most diabetics use the “finger stick” method to monitor their blood glucose levels and patient compliance is problematic due to pain caused by frequent (several times per day) sticks. As a consequence, there have been efforts to develop non-invasive or minimally invasive in vivo and more efficient in vitro methods for frequent and/or continuous monitoring of blood glucose or other glucose-containing biological fluids. Some of the most promising of these methods involve the use of a biosensor. Biosensors are devices capable of providing specific quantitative or semi-quantitative analytical information using a biological recognition element which is combined with a transducing (detecting) element.
The biological recognition element of a biosensor determines the selectivity, so that only the compound which has to be measured leads to a signal. The selection may be based on biochemical recognition of the ligand where the chemical structure of the ligand (e.g. glucose) is unchanged, or biocatalysis in which the element catalyzes a biochemical reaction of the analyte.
The transducer translates the recognition of the biological recognition element into a semi-quantitative or quantitative signal. Possible transducer technologies are optical, electrochemical, acoustical/mechanical or colorimetrical. The optical properties that have been exploited include absorbance, fluorescence/phosphorescence, bio/chemiluminescence, reflectance, light scattering and refractive index. Conventional reporter groups such as fluorescent compounds may be used, or alternatively, there is the opportunity for direct optical detection, without the need for a label.
Biosensors specifically designed for glucose detection that use biological elements for signal transduction typically use electrochemical or calorimetric detection of glucose oxidase activity. This method is associated with difficulties including the influence of oxygen levels, inhibitors in the blood and problems with electrodes. In addition, detection results in consumption of the analyte that can cause difficulties when measuring low glucose concentrations.
A rapidly advancing area of biosensor development is the use of fluorescently labeled periplasmic binding proteins (PBP's). As reported by Cass (Anal. Chem. 1994, 66, 3840-3847), a labeled maltose binding protein (MBP) was effectively demonstrated as a useable maltose sensor. In this work MBP, which has no native cysteine residues, was mutated to provide a protein with a single cysteine residue at a position at 337 (S337C). This mutation position was within the binding cleft where maltose binding occurred and therefore experienced a large environmental change upon maltose binding. Numerous fluorophores were studied, some either blocked ligand binding or interfered with the conformational change of the protein. Of those studied IANBD resulted in a substantial increase in fluorescence (160%) intensity upon maltose binding. This result may be consistent with the location of the fluorophore changing from a hydrophilic or solvent exposed environment to a more hydrophobic environment as would have been theoretically predicted for the closing of the hinge upon maltose binding. However this mutant protein and the associated reporter group do not bind diagnostically important sugars in mammalian bodily fluids. Cass also disclosed Analytical Chemistry 1998, 70(23), 5111-5113 association of this protein onto TiO2 surfaces, however, the surface-bound protein suffered from reduced activity with time and required constant hydration.
Hellinga, et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,277,627), reports the engineering of a glucose biosensor by introducing a fluorescent transducer into a Galactose/Glucose Binding Protein (GGBP) mutated to contain a cysteine residue, taking advantage of the large conformation changes that occur upon glucose binding. Hellinga et al (U.S. Pat. No. 6,277,627) disclose that the transmission of conformational changes in mutated GGBPs can be exploited to construct integrated signal transduction functions that convert a glucose binding event into a change in fluorescence via an allosteric coupling mechanism. The fluorescent transduction functions are reported to interfere minimally with the intrinsic binding properties of the sugar binding pocket in GGBP.
In order to accurately determine glucose concentration in biological solutions such as blood, interstitial fluids, occular solutions or perspiration, etc., it may be desirable to adjust the binding constant of the sensing molecule of a biosensor so as to match the physiological and/or pathological operating range of the biological solution of interest. Without the appropriate binding constant, a signal may be out of range for a particular physiological and/or pathological concentration. Additionally, biosensors may be configured using more than one protein, each with a different binding constant, to provide accurate measurements over a wide range of glucose concentrations as disclosed by Lakowicz (U.S. Pat. No. 6,197,534).
Despite the usefulness of mutated GGBPs, few of these proteins have been designed and examined, either with or without reporter groups. Specific mutations of sites and/or attachment of certain reporter groups may act to modify a binding constant in an unpredictable way. Additionally, a biosensor containing reporter groups may have a desirable binding constant, but not result in an easily detectable signal upon analyte binding. Some of the overriding factors that determine sensitivity of a particular reporter probe attached to a particular protein for the detection of a specific analyte is the nature of the specific interactions between the selected probe and amino acid residues of the protein. It is not currently possible to predict these interactions within proteins using existing computational methods, nor is it possible to employ rational design methodology to optimize the choice of reporter probes. It is currently not possible to predict the effect on either the binding constant or the selectivity based on the position of any reporter group, or amino acid substitution in the protein (or visa-versa).
To develop reagentless, self-contained, and or implantable and or reusable biosensors using proteins the transduction element must be in communication with a detection device to interrogate the signal to and from the transduction element. Typical methods include placing proteins within or onto the surface of optical fibers or planner waveguides using immobilization strategies. Such immobilization strategies include, but are not limited to, entrapment of the protein within semi-permeable membranes, organic polymer matrixes, or inorganic polymer matrixes. The immobilization strategy ultimately may determine the performance of the working biosensor. Prior art details numerous problems associated with the immobilization of biological molecules. For example, many proteins undergo irreversible conformational changes, denaturing, and loss of biochemical activity. Immobilized proteins can exist in a large number of possible orientations on any particular surface, for example, with some proteins oriented such that their active sites are exposed whereas others may be oriented such that there active sites are not exposed, and thus not able to undergo selective binding reactions with the analyte. Immobilized proteins are also subject to time-dependent denaturing, denaturing during immobilization, and leaching of the entrapped protein subsequent to immobilization. Therefore problems result including an inability to maintain calibration of the sensing device and signal drift. In general, binding proteins require orientational control to enable their use, thus physical absorption and random or bulk covalent surface attachment or immobilization strategies as taught in the literature generally are not successful.
There have been several reports of encapsulating proteins and other biological systems into simple inorganic silicon matrixes formed by a low temperature sol-gel processing methods, for example, as taught by Brennan, J. D. Journal of Fluorescence 1999, 9(4), 295-312, and Flora, K.; Brennan, J. D. Analytical Chemistry 1998, 70(21), 4505-4513. Some sol-gel matrixes are optically transparency, making them useful for the development of chemical and bio-chemical sensors that rely on optical transduction, for example absorption or fluorescence spectroscopic methods. However, entrapped or immobilized binding proteins must remain able to undergo at least some analyte induced conformational change. Conformational motions of binding proteins may be substantially restricted in most sol-gel matrixes as taught in the literature. It has been reported that sol-gel entrapped proteins can exhibit dramatically altered binding constants, or binding constants that change over relatively short time periods or under varying environmental conditions. In addition, a time dependence of the protein function while entrapped in the sol-gel matrix has been reported. This time dependence of protein function in sol-gel entrapped matrixes has limited general applicability of sol-gels in biosensors for in vitro as well as in vivo use.
Therefore, there is a need in the art to design additional useful mutated proteins and mutated GGBP proteins generating detectable signals upon analyte binding for use as biosensors, and additionally there is a need for the entrapment of these proteins into analyte-permeable matrixes for interfacing to signal transmitting and receiving elements.